[Ancient History - Notes]*Chapter 17. The Imperial Cholas Dynasty
Notes of Ancient History - The Imperial Cholas Dynasty
Following the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas emerged as a prominent dynasty in South India. Initially based in Uraiyur, they rose to power in the 9th century and established a vast empire encompassing much of the region. Tanjore served as their capital, and their influence extended to Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula, earning them the title of "Imperial Cholas."
Founding and Early Conquests
* Vijayalaya: The dynasty's founder, Vijayalaya, captured Tanjore from the Muttaraiyars in 815 AD. He built a temple dedicated to Durga, marking the beginning of the Chola empire.
* Aditya: Vijayalaya's son, Aditya, further expanded the empire by defeating the Pallavas and annexing Tondaimandalam.
Parantaka I and Early Challenges
* Conquests and Defeats: Parantaka I, a significant early Chola ruler, achieved victories over the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon. However, he faced a major setback in the Battle of Takkolam against the Rashtrakutas.
* Temple Construction: Despite the defeat, Parantaka I was renowned for his temple-building activities. He adorned the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
* Village Administration: His reign also witnessed the creation of the Uttiramerur inscriptions, providing valuable insights into Chola village administration.
Rajaraja I and the Resurgence of Chola Power
* Reestablishing Dominance: After a period of decline, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I. He embarked on a series of conquests, expanding the empire and consolidating Chola power.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Founding: Vijayalaya established the Chola dynasty in 815 AD.
* Expansion: Aditya, Parantaka I, and Rajaraja I played crucial roles in expanding the Chola empire.
* Conquests: The Cholas defeated the Pallavas, Pandyas, and the ruler of Ceylon.
* Setbacks: Parantaka I faced a defeat against the Rashtrakutas.
* Temple Construction: The Cholas were renowned for their temple-building activities, exemplified by the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
* Administrative Innovations: The Uttiramerur inscriptions provide valuable insights into Chola village administration.
* Cultural Patronage: The Cholas were patrons of art and culture, contributing to the development of South Indian culture.
Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.): The Apex of Chola Power
Rajaraja I, who reigned from 985 to 1014 AD, is considered one of the most illustrious rulers of the Chola dynasty. His reign marked the zenith of Chola power, characterized by extensive military conquests, cultural patronage, and administrative reforms.
Military Victories
* Naval Dominance: Rajaraja I achieved significant naval victories, defeating the Cheras in the Battle of Kandalursalai and destroying their navy.
* Land Conquests: He expanded the Chola empire through land conquests, capturing territories such as Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi, and Nolambapadi in the Mysore region.
* Foreign Invasions: Rajaraja I's son, Rajendra I, successfully invaded Sri Lanka, leading to the annexation of the northern part of the island. The capital of Sri Lanka was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa.
* Western Chalukya Conflict: Rajaraja I confronted the growing power of the Western Chalukyas, defeating Satyasraya and capturing territories like Raichur Doab and Banavasi.
* Telugu Choda Restoration: He restored the Vengi throne to its rightful rulers, Saktivarman and Vimaladitya, by defeating the Telugu Chodas.
* Maldive Islands Conquest: Rajaraja I concluded his military conquests with a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands, which he successfully conquered.
Cultural and Religious Patronage
* Temple Construction: Rajaraja I was a devout follower of Saivism and a generous patron of temple construction. He completed the magnificent Rajarajeswara temple (Brihadeeswara temple) at Tanjore, a testament to Chola architectural prowess.
* Buddhist Support: Despite his devotion to Saivism, Rajaraja I also supported Buddhist institutions, contributing to the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
Extent of the Chola Empire
At its peak under Rajaraja I, the Chola empire encompassed a vast territory, including the Pandya, Chera, and Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu, as well as Gangavadi, Nolambapadi, and Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan. The empire also extended beyond India to the northern part of Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Rajaraja I's reign marked the zenith of Chola power.
* He achieved significant naval and land victories, expanding the Chola empire.
* Rajaraja I was a patron of both Saivism and Buddhism.
* The Rajarajeswara temple at Tanjore is a major architectural achievement of the Chola period.
* The Chola empire reached its greatest extent under Rajaraja I.
Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.): The Culmination of Chola Power
Rajaraja I's son, Rajendra I, continued the dynasty's tradition of military conquests and expansion. His reign solidified the Cholas' position as a dominant power in South India.
Military Victories
* Sri Lankan Conquest: Rajendra I completed the conquest of Sri Lanka, defeating Mahinda V and annexing the southern part of the island.
* Reassertion of Authority: He reasserted Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
* Western Chalukya Conflict: Rajendra I defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king, and established the Tungabhadra River as the boundary between the two empires.
* North Indian Campaign: Rajendra I's most famous military venture was his expedition to North India, crossing the Ganges and defeating Mahipala I of Bengal. He founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram to commemorate his victory.
* Kadaram Expedition: Rajendra I also led a naval expedition to Kadaram (Sri Vijaya), expanding Chola influence in Southeast Asia.
* Suppression of Rebellions: Throughout his reign, Rajendra I successfully suppressed rebellions and maintained the integrity of the Chola Empire.
Cultural and Religious Patronage
* Temple Construction: Rajendra I built the Rajesvaram temple at Gangaikondacholapuram and excavated a large irrigation tank.
* Religious Tolerance: He was known for his religious tolerance, extending patronage to both Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.
Decline of the Chola Empire
Following Rajendra I's death, the Chola Empire gradually declined. While rulers like Kulottunga I and Kulottunga III attempted to maintain the dynasty's power, internal challenges and external threats contributed to its eventual downfall. The rise of feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the resurgence of the Pandya dynasty ultimately led to the demise of the Chola Empire.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Rajendra I was a powerful Chola ruler who continued his father's legacy of military conquests.
* He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka and expanded Chola influence in North India and Southeast Asia.
* Rajendra I was a patron of temple construction and known for his religious tolerance.
* The Chola Empire began to decline after Rajendra I's death.
Chola Administration: Central Government under the Cholas
The Cholas established an efficient and centralized administrative system, with the emperor or king at its helm. The vastness of the Chola Empire and its abundant resources enhanced the power and prestige of the monarchy. The magnificent capital cities of Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the grand royal courts, and the extensive grants to temples served as symbols of the king's authority.
To ensure effective governance, Chola emperors undertook regular royal tours to inspect different parts of the empire and oversee administrative functions. This practice allowed them to directly address issues and maintain control over the vast territories under their rule.
The Chola administration was supported by a complex network of officials, categorized into two main groups: perundanam and sirudanam. These officials held various positions and responsibilities within the administrative hierarchy, ensuring efficient functioning of the government.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* The Cholas established a centralized administrative system.
* The emperor or king was the head of the administration.
* Chola emperors undertook regular royal tours to oversee administrative functions.
* The Chola administration was supported by a network of officials categorized into perundanam and sirudanam.
Chola Administration: Central Government under the Cholas
The Cholas established an efficient and centralized administrative system, with the emperor or king at its helm. The vastness of the Chola Empire and its abundant resources enhanced the power and prestige of the monarchy. The magnificent capital cities of Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the grand royal courts, and the extensive grants to temples served as symbols of the king's authority.
The Emperor or King
* Supreme Authority: The emperor or king was the apex of the Chola administrative system.
* Power and Prestige: The vastness of the Chola Empire and its abundant resources enhanced the monarch's power and prestige.
* Symbols of Authority: The magnificent capital cities of Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, grand royal courts, and extensive grants to temples served as symbols of the king's authority.
Royal Tours
* Effective Governance: To ensure effective governance, Chola emperors undertook regular royal tours to inspect different parts of the empire.
* Direct Address of Issues: These tours allowed the king to directly address issues and maintain control over the vast territories.
Administrative Officials
* Perundanam and Sirudanam: Chola officials were categorized into two main groups: perundanam and sirudanam.
* Various Positions and Responsibilities: These officials held different positions and responsibilities within the administrative hierarchy.
* Efficient Functioning: The complex network of officials ensured the efficient functioning of the government.
Centralized Administration
* Stability and Prosperity: The centralized nature of the Chola administration, coupled with the effective functioning of various officials, contributed to the stability and prosperity of the empire.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Centralized Authority: The emperor or king held supreme authority, supported by a complex network of officials.
* Royal Tours: Regular royal tours ensured effective governance and direct address of issues.
* Administrative Hierarchy: The officials were categorized into perundanam and sirudanam, each with specific responsibilities.
* Symbols of Authority: The magnificent capital cities and royal courts symbolized the king's power and prestige.
* Stability and Prosperity: The centralized administration contributed to the stability and prosperity of the Chola Empire.
Chola Administration: Revenue Administration under the Cholas
The Cholas had a well-organized land revenue system, known as puravuvarithinaikkalam. All lands were carefully surveyed and classified to determine appropriate tax assessments. Residential areas, known as ur nattam, and temple lands were often exempt from taxes.
Land Revenue System
* Puravuvarithinaikkalam: The Cholas had a well-organized land revenue system known as puravuvarithinaikkalam.
* Land Surveys and Classification: All lands were carefully surveyed and classified to determine appropriate tax assessments.
* Tax Exemptions: Residential areas (ur nattam) and temple lands were often exempt from taxes.
Other Taxes
* Tolls and Customs: The Cholas collected tolls and customs on goods transported between different regions.
* Professional Taxes: Taxes were levied on various professions and occupations.
* Ceremonial Fees: Fees were collected on ceremonial occasions like marriages.
* Tax Remissions: To alleviate the burden on the people during difficult times, the Cholas sometimes implemented tax remissions. Kulottunga I, for example, earned the title "Sungam Tavirtta Cholan" for abolishing tolls.
Government Revenue Utilization
* Essential Services and Expenditures: The government's revenue was primarily used to fund:
* Maintenance of the king and his court
* Upkeep of the army and navy
* Construction and maintenance of roads
* Development of irrigation tanks and canals
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Land Revenue System: The Cholas had a well-organized land revenue system based on land surveys and classification.
* Tax Exemptions: Certain lands, such as residential areas and temple lands, were exempt from taxes.
* Other Taxes: The Cholas collected various other taxes, including tolls, customs, professional taxes, and ceremonial fees.
* Tax Remissions: To provide relief to the people, the Cholas sometimes implemented tax remissions.
* Government Revenue Utilization: The revenue was used to fund essential services and expenditures.
Chola Administration: Provincial Administration under the Cholas
The Cholas established a well-organized provincial administration to oversee their vast empire. The empire was divided into mandalams, which were further subdivided into valanadus and nadus. Within each nadu, there were several autonomous villages.
Provincial Structure
* Mandalams: The Cholas divided their vast empire into mandalams.
* Valanadus: Mandalams were further subdivided into valanadus.
* Nadus: Valanadus were further divided into nadus.
* Autonomous Villages: Within each nadu, there were several autonomous villages.
Provincial Officials
* Mandalams: Mandalams were administered by royal princes or high-ranking officials appointed by the central government.
* Valanadus: Valanadus were governed by periyanattars.
* Nadus: Nadus were under the authority of nattars.
Urban Administration
* Nagarams: Towns were known as nagarams.
* Nagarattars: Nagarams were administered by councils called nagarattars.
* Urban Affairs Management: Nagarattars played a significant role in managing the affairs of urban centers.
Effective Governance
* Hierarchical Structure: The hierarchical administrative structure, combined with the involvement of local officials, ensured effective governance and control throughout the Chola Empire.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Provincial Divisions: The Cholas established a well-organized provincial administration with divisions into mandalams, valanadus, and nadus.
* Provincial Officials: Different officials, including royal princes, periyanattars, and nattars, were responsible for administering different levels of the provincial administration.
* Urban Administration: Nagarams were administered by councils called nagarattars, who played a crucial role in managing urban affairs.
* Effective Governance: The combination of hierarchical structure and local involvement ensured effective governance and control.
Chola Administration: Village Administration under the Cholas
The Cholas, known for their advanced administrative system, further developed the concept of village autonomy, which had evolved over centuries. The village assemblies or sabhas played a crucial role in local governance during this period.
Village Autonomy
* Advanced Administrative System: The Cholas further developed the concept of village autonomy, which had evolved over centuries.
* Village Assemblies or Sabhas: These assemblies played a crucial role in local governance.
Uttiramerur Inscriptions
* Formation and Functions of Village Councils: Two inscriptions from the reign of Parantaka I, found at Uttiramerur, provide valuable insights into the formation and functions of these village councils.
* Division of Village into Wards: The village was divided into thirty wards, each responsible for nominating members to the village council.
Qualifications and Disqualifications
* Eligibility Criteria: To be eligible as a ward member, one had to:
* Own at least one-fourth veli of land
* Have own residence
* Be between thirty and seventy years old
* Have knowledge of the Vedas
* Disqualifications: Certain individuals were disqualified from serving on the council, including those who had served on committees for three consecutive years, failed to submit accounts, committed sins, or stolen property.
Selection Process
* Kudavolai: From the nominated candidates, one member was selected for each ward through a process known as kudavolai.
* Random Selection: This involved writing the names of eligible candidates on palm leaves and placing them in a pot. A young boy or girl would then draw thirty names randomly, one for each ward.
Village Committees
* Six Variyams or Committees: The selected members were divided into six variyams or committees, each responsible for different aspects of village administration:
* Samvatsaravariyam: Overseeing the village's annual cycle and festivals
* Erivariyam: Maintaining irrigation tanks and water resources
* Thotta Variyam: Managing village lands and forests
* Pancha Variyam: Law and order, dispute resolution, and public welfare
* Pon Variyam: Financial matters and revenue collection
* Puravuvari Variyam: Maintaining records and accounts
* Committee Meetings: Committee members, known as variyapperumakkal, met regularly, often in temples or under trees, to discuss and pass resolutions.
* Variability: The number of committees and ward members varied from village to village.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Village Autonomy: The Cholas promoted village autonomy, with village assemblies playing a crucial role.
* Uttiramerur Inscriptions: These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the formation and functions of village councils.
* Qualifications and Disqualifications: There were specific criteria for eligibility and disqualification of ward members.
* Selection Process: The selection process involved a random drawing of names.
* Village Committees: The village councils were divided into six committees, each with specific responsibilities.
* Committee Meetings: Committee members met regularly to discuss and pass resolutions.
Socio-Economic Life under the Cholas
Caste System and Social Structure
* Prevalence of Caste: The caste system was deeply ingrained in Chola society. Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed privileged status.
* Valangai and Idangai: Later Chola inscriptions mention two major divisions among castes: Valangai and Idangai.
* Social Cooperation: Despite the caste system, there was a degree of cooperation among various castes and sub-castes.
* Women's Position: The position of women remained largely marginalized.
* Sati and Devadasi System: The practices of sati and devadasi emerged during this period.
Religious Landscape
* Saivism and Vaishnavism: Both Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished under the Cholas.
* Temple Construction: Numerous temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens.
* Mathas: Mathas played a significant role in religious and social affairs.
Economic Development
* Agriculture: The Cholas promoted agricultural prosperity through land reclamation, irrigation tank construction, and efficient agricultural practices.
* Industries: The weaving and metalworking industries flourished.
* Trade and Commerce: The Cholas witnessed brisk trade and commerce, both domestically and internationally.
* Currency: The Cholas issued gold, silver, and copper coins.
* Foreign Contacts: The Cholas maintained commercial contacts with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Caste System: The caste system was prevalent, but there was some degree of social cooperation.
* Women's Position: Women's position was marginalized, with practices like sati and devadasi prevalent.
* Religious Landscape: Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished, and numerous temples were built.
* Economic Development: The Cholas promoted agriculture, industries, trade, and commerce.
* Foreign Contacts: The Cholas maintained commercial contacts with other countries.
Education and Literature under the Cholas
Education and Institutions
* Importance of Education: The Cholas recognized the importance of education and established various educational institutions.
* Inscriptions: Inscriptions from Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, and Thirubhuvanai provide details of these colleges.
* Diverse Curriculum: These institutions offered a diverse curriculum, including the Vedas, epics, mathematics, and medicine.
* Land Endowments: Land endowments were made to ensure the financial sustainability of these educational centers.
Tamil Literature
* Golden Age: The Chola period witnessed a golden age for Tamil literature.
* Notable Works:
* Sivakasintamani and Kundalakesi by Thiruthakkadevar
* Kamban's Ramayana
* Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar
* Kalingattupparani by Jayankondar
* Moovarula by Ottakuthar
* Grammatical Works: Kalladam, Yapperungalam, Nannul, and Virasoliyam
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Education and Institutions: The Cholas established various educational institutions and promoted education.
* Tamil Literature: The Chola period witnessed a golden age for Tamil literature, with notable works in various genres.
* Literary Contributions: The Cholas' patronage of education and literature contributed to the cultural vibrancy of their empire.
Art and Architecture under the Cholas
The Cholas are renowned for their significant contributions to the development of Dravidian art and architecture. They built numerous temples, characterized by their distinctive architectural style and exquisite sculptures.
Art and Architecture under the Cholas
Temple Architecture
* Dravidian Style: The Cholas are renowned for their contributions to Dravidian art and architecture.
* Vimana: The vimana, a towering pyramidal structure, is a defining feature of Chola temples.
* Key Temples: Early Chola temples can be found at Narthamalai, Kodumbalur, and Srinivasanallur. The most iconic example is the Brihadeeswara Temple (Big Temple) at Tanjore.
* Later Chola Temples: Other notable temples include the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram and the Kampaharesvara Temple at Tribhuvanam.
Sculpture
* Temple Sculptures: The walls of Chola temples are adorned with numerous sculptures depicting Hindu deities, mythological scenes, and historical figures.
* Bronze Statues: The Cholas are particularly celebrated for their bronze sculptures, such as the Nataraja statues.
Painting
* Temple Paintings: While less prominent than their sculptural achievements, the Cholas also produced notable paintings.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Dravidian Architecture: The Cholas developed the Dravidian style of architecture.
* Temple Architecture: The vimana is a key feature of Chola temples.
* Sculpture: The Cholas produced exquisite sculptures, including bronze statues.
* Painting: While less prominent, the Cholas also produced notable paintings.
Overview of The Imperial Cholas
The Cholas emerged as a dominant force in South India, establishing a vast empire and leaving a lasting legacy in the region. Their reign was characterized by military conquests, administrative reforms, cultural patronage, and architectural achievements.
Key Achievements
* Military Dominance: The Cholas established a vast empire through military conquests.
* Administrative Efficiency: They developed a well-organized administrative system.
* Cultural Patronage: The Cholas supported literature, art, and architecture.
* Architectural Legacy: The Brihadeeswara Temple at Tanjore is a prime example of their architectural achievements.
Enduring Influence
* Impact on South Indian History and Culture: The Cholas' influence extended beyond their reign.
* Legacy of Power and Achievements: Their legacy serves as a testament to their power, achievements, and enduring contributions to the region.
Key Points for Competitive Exams
* Dominant Force in South India: The Cholas emerged as a dominant force.
* Military Conquests and Administrative Reforms: They achieved military dominance and implemented efficient administration.
* Cultural Patronage and Architectural Achievements: The Cholas supported cultural endeavors and built magnificent temples.
* Enduring Influence: Their legacy continues to impact South Indian history and culture.
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